BothAndBlog Forum

Dualism and Interactionism
https://thephilosophyforum.com/discussi ... ent/846487


Once we realized that abstractions are not reality, things become easier. There is no reason to think that the laws of mindless matter should apply without modification to thinking beings. — Dfpolis

Yes. Abstractions only exist in the imaginary world of Minds. So, they are Ideal, not Real. And physical laws can only be used as metaphors for metaphysical relationships.


Most contemporary philosophers of mind employ a Cartesian conceptual space in which reality is (at least potentially) divided into res extensa and res cogitans. Then, they ask: how res cogitans could possibly interact with res extensa? I am suggesting that this approach is nonsensical because reality cannot be divided into res extensa and res cogitans. Clearly, thinking depends on neural processes and neural processes depend on extended stuff. This dependence has been known since Aristotle wrote De Anima. — Dfpolis

I assume that by "non-sensical" you mean : from the perspective of Realism & Materialism. You may be correct, that many-if-not-most posters on TPF identify as materialists or physicalists, to the exclusion of psychological or metaphysical views. But not all.

Atomism/Materialism was an ancient philosophy, that was later confirmed in terms of physical laws in the 17th century. However, some of Newton's assumptions have been called into question by 20th century sub-atomic Science. So now, there are good empirical reasons to doubt*1 the evidence of the physical senses, and to apply the 6th sense of philosophical Reasoning. The "science" I'm referring to is Quantum Physics, not Spiritualism.

Res Cogitans is literally non-sense in the sense that mental phenomena cannot be perceived via the 5 physical senses. But commonsense led ancient thinkers to conclude that Life Functions and Mental Phenomena are not explainable in terms of their material substance. Fictional Dr. Frankenstein injected Life into his creature with a jolt of natural Lightning. But real-world scientists have not been able to cause inert (dead) matter to become a living person by means of electrical Energy. The Miller-Urey experiment, almost a century ago, didn't even come close to creating life from non-life. So, it seems that there is still a missing element or force in the Matter + X = Life or the Matter + Life + X = Mind equations. Moreover, Reality still seems to persist in presenting a dualistic face to life-seekers and mind-finders.

It's obvious that Minds are always Embodied ; unless you give credence to invisible intangible ghosts. But that simple eyeball observation does not explain the emergence of Anima or Noumena from Materia. Cartesian dualism was merely a compromise, intended to allow Science to proceed without interference from Religion*2. A more pertinent observation in the 21st century is that Mind is the Function of physical brains. But, is a Function Res Extensa or Res Cogitans, or something else, perhaps Res Causatio?

I'm not proposing a Triality, but merely that both space-occupying things, and thinking things, might be merely various products of evolutionary Causation. Not just boring linear mechanical causation, but the holistic non-linear Interactionism of quantum entanglement. I won't attempt to explain that conjectural hypothesis in this post. But I've been exploring the multi-faceted roles of Causal Information (e.g. physical Energy or mental Intention) for several years.

That Information-based notion does not displace Materialism for the practical purposes of Science, but it does provide a new way to understand the impractical unrealistic subjects of Philosophical investigations : the immaterial Mind Objects we call "Ideas" and "Concepts". And ultimately, it's a Monistic worldview.


*1. Uncertainty Principle :
The uncertainty principle presents a philosophical challenge to one of our basic assumptions about the nature of physical objects, namely, that physical variables have precise and definite objective existence.
https://www.quora.com/Does-Heisenbergs- ... rpretation

*2. Descartes's Dualism :
Thus, the concept of metaphysical dualism served to be a compromise between religion and science. Descartes suggested that immaterial substances such as the soul are the locus of free will and it tends to last beyond the death of the physical body and thereby, are immortal.
https://www.studocu.com/en-us/messages/ ... onhow-does

I've learned that hylomorphic dualism offers a different perspective. The soul is not a separate "thing" or "substance" in the way Cartesian dualism conceives it. Instead, it is the form of the body—a principle of organization, a blueprint. The rational element of this soul (nous) is dynamic, intimately involved in the act of knowing. — Wayfarer

That explanation of the relationship between the substantial (res extensa) Body and the insubstantial (res cogitans) Mind (processor of Information) is very close to the reasoning behind my own Enformationism thesis. But, the Dualistic metaphor is only for convenience in communicating about Abstractions in a Materialistic society. A Realistic worldview can have no beginning or end, no preface or denouement ; only a never-ending meaningless in media res.

Ultimately, my thesis is Monistic, in the sense of Plato's hypothetical eternal universal "Form" {as the source of all space-time configurations} or Aristotle's "Prime Mover" {as the First Cause of all subsequent transformations}. Metaphorically, Eternal Form functions like a computer program with universal definitions & instructions (laws governing interactions), which are combined in various ways in the calculations of Evolution. Nature's program produces interim solutions to some (unbeknownst to us mortals) original question. Philosophy is the Quixotic quest for the meaning of this mundane routine.

The hypothetical Program of Evolution is pre-set with "principles of organization" and with the "dynamic" power to reorganize basic Matter into a myriad of unique forms (objects & organisms). This worldview is Monistic though, only if you assume that the physical computer (Cosmos) is running an a priori program that was "designed" by a hypothetical singular Programmer. Since the speculative Enformer exists metaphorically outside the physical computer world, S/he is not a real thing or person in the usual sense, but merely an postulated solution to a perennial philosophical quest for the First Cause.

This worldview does not have to be taken on Faith in some human document. The evidence is the real world of the senses, and the testament is the ideal product of Reason. Unfortunately, the Universal Cause or World Programmer has revealed He/rself only by means of the limited perception and fallible reasoning of meat brains. So, a statistical Bayesian confidence interval is the closest we can come to certainty of opinion about a Principle that is empirically unverifiable. Therefore, we may never completely agree on the name or characteristics of that ultimate Unity. Hence, as Arthur C. Clarke expressed the conundrum : "the nine billion names of God".

Any well-grounded theory of mind has to take that into account. So, we cannot divide extended reality from human mental reality. — Dfpolis

Descartes categorically "divided" Soul from Body ; which in more modern terms might translate to a conceptual distinction between Mind and Brain. So it does seem possible to think of them as two different but inter-related Things. Since we can and do "divide" the world into conceptual categories, from what perspective do you conclude that we "cannot divide" Res Extensa from Res Cogitans?

A Monistic Materialist might assume that ultimately Mind is just a different kind of Matter, so the distinction is artificial, not natural. But philosophers use such artificial analysis as an essential tool of their trade. Or, a Monistic Idealist might make the opposite argument : that Brain is merely a tangible form of ethereal Mind. Yet both feel justified in making conceptual sub-classifications underneath the umbrella of their preferred fundamental substance. Apparently, you have either a different meaning of "divide", or a different Prime Substance, in mind. Please explain.

It's obvious that Minds are always Embodied ; unless you give credence to invisible intangible ghosts. — Gnomon
No, one need only give credence to logical analysis such as that by which Aristotle established the existence of an immaterial unmoved mover, described as "self-thinking thought." — Dfpolis

I agree that we can reason from sensory evidence (specific things) to non-sensory conclusions (generalizations ; principles). But Aristotle's "Self-Thinker" sounds like a dis-embodied Mind, and for a Materialist, would fall into the same nonsense category with Ghosts and Circular Logic.

Like you, I am not a Materialist, except for commonsense practical purposes. Yet, for philosophical reasons, I accept that all of the Minds in my sensory experience have been associated with meat Brains. However, I can cogitate from other evidence (e.g. Quantum Physics) that Mathematics (e.g. Fields) may be more fundamental than Matter. And Mental Information can be defined in terms of both Math and Logic.

So, the question arises : what is the relationship between Math and Mind? My answer is that both are subvenient (dependent) forms of the universal Power-to-Enform (Energy + Information = EnFormAction). That unconventional notion is not a derivative of pure Idealism, but a conjugation of Idealism & Physicalism. Or, as I like to call it Enformationism.

PS___ Are you familiar with the Mass-Energy-Information Equivalence postulation in physics?


Enformationism :
A philosophical worldview or belief system grounded on the 20th century discovery that Information, rather than Matter, is the fundamental substance of everything in the universe. It is intended to be the 21st century successor to ancient Materialism and Spiritualism. An Update from Bronze Age to Information Age. It's a Theory of Everything that covers, not just matter & energy, but also Life & Mind & Love.
https://blog-glossary.enformationism.info/page8.html

So, how do thought and matter interact? They don't -- because the question is ill-formed. What we have is being, with different beings having different capabilities. — Dfpolis

Is that negation based on a distinction between Real Things and Ideal Beings?

In a previous reply, you called Descartes' dual categories "non-sensical because reality cannot be divided into res extensa and res cogitans". Yet, you say that "thought and matter" have different (dual?) "capabilities". If "capability" is taken to mean the ability to affect other "beings", how would you characterize that innate power? Extensa is a 3D spatial quantity, while Cogitans is a non-space-time quality; perhaps more like a capability? Extended Matter interacts with other things via exchanges of Energy. Do you think that Thinking Beings interact via Intention? If so, is Intention analogous to Energy in that it has effects on other minds?

The OP is titled Dualism and Interactionism. If you defined the latter term above, I missed it. So I Googled, and found that it is defined in terms of "Dualism" and "Causation"*1. Apparently, your objection to the Dualistic (proximate appearance) aspect is based on a Monistic (ultimate Ideality) worldview, in which Mind & Matter can be traced back to some primordial Origin, with the potential for both Material things and Mental beings. Is that summary anywhere close to your understanding?

If so, I can agree, although I typically use different terminology, drawn partly from sub-atomic Physics , Information theory, modern Cosmology, and ancient Philosophy. In my thesis, the Ultimate Origin (First Cause) is neither Mind nor Matter, but the Potential for evolving a plethora of material Things & living Creatures & Thinking Beings in the Real world. And I use physical Energy as a metaphor for the "interactions" between those offspring of Plato's hypothetical ideal FORM*2 (configuration ; manifestation ; design), and Aristotle's original Prime Mover (causation ; creation).

From those different aspects of Monistic Potential, I can trace Cosmology from an initial Bang of omnidirectional Causation, which transformed into the dual aspects of Energy & Matter, and thence into the manifold Darwinian "forms most beautiful". Some of those sub-forms have material Properties and some have immaterial Qualities, such as Life & Mind. Does any of that conjecture make sense from your non-dual perspective?


*1. Interactionism (philosophy of mind) :
Interactionism or interactionist dualism is the theory in the philosophy of mind which holds that matter and mind are two distinct and independent substances that exert causal effects on one another.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interacti ... y_of_mind)

*2. Form :
noun --- Structure : a> the visible shape or configuration of something ; b> a particular way in which a thing exists or appears; a manifestation.
verb --- Creation : a> bring together parts or combine to create (something) : b> make or fashion into a certain shape or form.

The obvious issue here is that we do not understand the medium (substance or aether) within which the waves are active. We know that waves are an activity of a substance, but we do not know the substance which these waves are an activity of. — Metaphysician Undercover

The ancient Greek concept of a Quintessence, Fifth Element, or Aether to serve as space-filling medium for physical processes, such as light propagation, has been raised and discarded several times over the centuries. Newton postulated a Luminiferous Ether ; others imagined a Gravitational Ether ; Einstein used the term "ether" as more of a metaphor than a material substance ; but Dirac described the quantum vacuum (zero-point energy) as ether-like ; and deBroglie imagined Pilot Waves in a "hidden medium" to serve as a universal reference frame. So, the metaphysical notion of Nothingness (Vacuum : Gk -- emptiness) has always been difficult to reconcile with our physical sciences.

Consequently, I have wondered if we could take Nothingness seriously, and eliminate the perceived necessity for a mysterious ethereal substance. Take a typical atom for example, and watch as an electron (point particle) jumps up, and then back down, between energy levels (orbits). This up & down -- maximum to minimum -- action produces waveforms on an oscilloscope. But the actual jumps seem to occur almost instantaneously. So, what if we imagine them as quantum leaps without passing through the space (nothingness) in between. In that case, the pattern would look more like a series of dots than a sine wave curve. {see image below}

In this scenario, with no medium except nothingness, the path of propagation would be a series of measured isolated dots with no curved line connecting them. So, what we would perceive (or measure) is on/off or max/min blinks/winks/twinks over time, but nothing in-between. This would eliminate the inferred interpolation*1, and the unbroken graphic curve. What's left is just instantaneous oscillations (vibrations) of energy from min to max, with no energy in the interval*2 : zero energy, zero momentum, zero particle, no continuity, just blips in nothingness over time.

Is it possible that this is actually what we perceive, and the continuous curve is an interpolation by the brain to make sense, in view of our commonsense concept of time as continuous*3? Hence, the Ether is inserted into our models as a place holder (medium) for the empty space between ticks of discrete Time. We can count discrete elements, but we can only imagine continuity*4. Maybe that Medium is "hidden" because it is metaphysical instead of physical : Ideal instead of Real.


*1. Interpolation : the insertion of something of a different nature into something else.

*2. Do particles with exactly zero energy exist? :
The complete absence of energy is only possible for a massless particle of zero momentum.
https://physics.stackexchange.com/quest ... ergy-exist

*3. Is time discrete or continuous and why? :
Although time is theoretically continuous, and many mathematical models (like geometric distribution) model continuous time, in an empirical setting, events or states are measured at selected points in time. Because of this measurement structure, we often have to use discrete time models.
https://stats.stackexchange.com/questio ... e-variable

*4. Philosophical Continuity :
The principle of continuity asserts that the universe is composed of an infinite series of forms, each of which shares with its neighbour at least one attribute.
https://www.britannica.com/topic/prinic ... continuity


SINE WAVE : red dots = On - Off - On ; blue curve is imaginary interpolation
sinusoidal-function-6.png

ELECTRON JUMPS between energy levels
Energy-Levels_QBS_Featured.jpg

↪Dfpolis


Note to self : Time is not a real thing, but a conceptual interpolation to serve as ,punctuation, of perception. Perhaps Space is also an interpolation, not a physical medium. It is the mental {brackets} that set apart one thing from another.

As soon as discussion turns to the qualitative dimension, the domain of values, then the response is 'Ah! You're talking religion.' — Wayfarer

That's a succinct way to describe the general slant (tendency) of this forum toward Physics (quanta), and away from Metaphysics (qualia). Originally, Philosophy studied both aspects of reality (mind & matter), but since the Renaissance secular split, philosophers have been forced to distinguish their observations from religious dogma, by providing empirical evidence. Ironically, Relativity and Quantum physics seem to have re-introduced Subjectivity (observer's framing perspective & qualitative prejudices) into Science and Philosophy.

I don't think this concept of nothingness works, because it renders what you call the quantum leap as unintelligible, impossible to understand. It may be the case that it actually is unintelligible, that is a real possibility, but we ought not take that as a starting premise. We need to start with the assumption that the medium is intelligible, then we'll be inspired to try to understand it, and only after exhausting all possible intelligible options should we conclude unintelligibility, nothingness. — Metaphysician Undercover

Quantum leaps seem to be inherent in the foundations of the physical world, as revealed by 20th century sub-atomic physics. In the 17th century, Isaac Newton assumed that physical processes are continuous, but the defining property of Quantum Physics is discontinuity. When measured down to the finest details, Energy was found to be, not an unbroken fluid substance, but could only be measured in terms of isolated packets, that came to be called "quanta"*1. Yet, on the human scale, the brain merges the graininess of Nature into a smooth image. There's nothing spooky about that. If you put your face up close to your computer screen, you will see a bunch of individual pixels. But as you move away, those tiny blocks of light merge into recognizable images.

So yes, until the early twentieth century, scientists had always "assumed" the material "medium" they were studying would be "intelligible" --- no philosophical speculation required. But the quantum pioneers --- using technological extensions of their senses --- began to "put their faces up close" to material objects. And they were perplexed by the non-mechanical nature of the microcosm of the material world. Bohr, Planck, etc found the observed quanta & quantum leaps to be "unintelligible", and characterized by inherent Relativity & Uncertainty*2.

This nonsense flew into the face of their traditional authority on Physics : the commonsensical, deterministic, and absolute concepts of Newtonian mechanics. Ironically, in their efforts to understand what they were seeing, they reintroduced previously banished Philosophy into the laboratory*3. Subsequently, Science experienced a split --- Practical vs Theoretical --- similar to the Protestant rejection of the authority of the Catholic Church. In this case, the Authority was Newton. Even today, philosophers tend to take sides : favoring either Classical Determinism & Materialism or Quantum Superdeterminism*4 & Idealism. Yet on the whole, reality may actually be a confusing admixture, similar to oil & water, that combine to form a smooth cream.

Due to the "spooky action at a distance" that annoyed Einstein, sub-atomic physics defies common sense. But pragmatic physicists gradually learned to accept that Nature did not necessarily play by our man-made rules. So, unlike impractical philosophers, they decided to "just shut-up and calculate". Consequently, post-quantum physics became mostly theoretical and mathematical, and little one-man labs were replaced by billion-dollar cyclotrons with thousands of mathematicians attempting to interpret the cryptic evidence produced by smashing particles together in intentional traffic accidents. {see image below}

Regarding, "exhausting all possible intelligible options", I recommend the book summarizing Werner Heisenberg's Nobel addresses : Physics and Philosophy, The Revolution in Modern Science. There, he reviews many of the alternative interpretations that quantum pioneers sifted through in their attempts to make sub-atomic reality "intelligible".


*1. Quanta : a discrete quantity of energy proportional in magnitude to the frequency of the radiation it represents. ___Oxford

*2. That Old Quantum Theory :
Einstein's two theories of relativity have shown us that when things move very fast or when objects get massive, the universe exhibits very strange properties. The same is also true of the microscopic world of quantum interactions. The deeper we delve into the macrocosm and the microcosm, the further we get away from the things that make sense to us in our everyday world.
https://www.infoplease.com/math-science ... tum-theory

*3. Understanding and Interpreting Contemporary Science :
Quantum Philosophy is a profound work of contemporary science and philosophy and an eloquent history of the long struggle to understand the nature of the world ...
https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt46n407

*4. Superdeterminism :
Quantum mechanics is perfectly comprehensible. It’s just that physicists abandoned the only way to make sense of it half a century ago.
https://nautil.us/how-to-make-sense-of- ... cs-237736/
Note --- This approach to quantum weirdness is essentially holistic, in the sense that everything is entangled with everything else. The parts are quantized, but the whole system (e.g. Cosmos) is integrated and interactive, functioning as a unity.

IS THIS PIECE OF REALITY INTELLIGIBLE ?
Strange pattern found inside world’s largest atom smasher
P82jaXuduPP9ThXdoj28SV.jpg

Hadot's point, as I understand it, is that the older kind of philosophy, which was not about argumentation and asserting anything, has been lost. I don't know if that's true; there may be practicing Stoics, Neoplatonists and Epicureans for all I know. To repeat, the point of such philosophies is about practice and not about proving any metaphysical theory. I'm not saying they have no value; obviously they have value to those who want to practice them. — Janus

I assume that the "older kind of philosophy" referred to those like Aristotle, who wrote the book on factual Physics. But even he wrote a book on speculative Metaphysics. Today, modern Science is dedicated to understanding material Reality, and disdains philosophical attempts to understand mental Ideality. Even the "soft" science of Psychology is based primarily on an empirical model, and eschews theoretical models. Except in cases where the mechanical models don't work : the neural-net model is a dead-end*1. In which case, Mathematical models like IIT, or Information models, are used to go beyond mechanics to understand the mind philosophically as a whole system.

A common answer to the question : "what is the point of philosophy"*2*3 is "to find the truth". Hence, the Greeks posited Universal Principles, which are in practice unverifiable, but are in principle provable, just as mathematical theorems can be proven to be consistent with Logic. Mathematical "truths" (e.g statistical probabilities) cannot be empirically confirmed, but scientists typically accept them as authoritative. Since physical experiments are always limited to a narrow selection of instances, the universal application of mathematics serves to generalize their subjective interpretations of empirical observations. Generalizing is the point of Philosophy ; what it does.

Your practical definition of "the point" of speculative Philosophy sounds more applicable to pragmatic Science. Philosophy seeks What's Logical (math ; meaning : values), while Science seeks What Works (instrumental). Newton's mechanical physics (transfer of force by contact) was workable, in the sense that it opened up a new path for the Industrial Age. But Bohr's non-mechanical physics (spooky action at a distance) opened-up a path to the Information Age. Computers are useful tools, even though they have no gears transmitting force from cog to cog. Instead, it transmits ideas from mind to mind, by means of immaterial bits chaining together only by logical relationships (math). Therefore, modern seekers can take a hint from Aristotle, who followed his Physics, with a separate addendum on Metaphysics*4.



*1.A. Minding the Brain: Models of the Mind, Information, and Empirical Science :
Their provocative conclusion? The mind is indeed more than the brain.
https://www.amazon.com/Minding-Brain-In ... 163712029X
*1.B. Contemporary Artificial Neural networks are a (very profitable) dead end.
The dead end in neural network research . . . .
https://floriandietz.me/neural_networks_dead_end/

*2. What Is Philosophy's Point? :
What is philosophy? What is its purpose? Its point? The traditional answer is that philosophy seeks truth. But several prominent scientists, notably Stephen Hawking, have contended that philosophy has no point, because science, a far more competent truth-seeking method, has rendered it obsolete.
https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/cr ... ing-truth/
Note --- The practical Facts of Science are only "true" in specific physical contexts. But the Truths of Philosophy are universally applicable to general metaphysical (immaterial) contexts. Science has eminent domain for practical "How" questions. But Philosophy is the go-to method for speculative "Why" questions. So their authority is limited to "non-overlapping magisteria".*4

*3. What's the point of Philosophy? :
Philosophy is about finding truth. It deals in absolutes. Science deals in probabilities, tentative speculation.
https://www.reddit.com/r/askphilosophy/ ... hilosophy/

*4. Science versus Philosophy :
Premise of Gould's position is NOMA: Non-Overlapping Magisteria (domains). Conflict between science and religion is FALSE - science covers empirical realm (what the universe is made of, or fact) while religion extends over the ultimate meaning and moral value of life.
https://serc.carleton.edu/sp/library/sa ... gould.html
Note --- In the context of this thread, "religion" is applied philosophy, which uses universal truths to control minds by means of beliefs. By contrast, Stoicism assumed a universal law (Zeus) immanent in Nature, and applied that belief to personal questions, such as "how ought one to live". And it taught self-control to independent-minded persons, requiring no political institutions or organizations to rule the minds of men by Faith. Was it a Religion, or a Philosophy?
Note 2 --- See Science is not "The Pursuit of Truth" https://thephilosophyforum.com/discussi ... t-of-truth

Gnomon
I was referring to ancient philosophical "schools" such as Stoicism, Epicureanism, the Cynics, and Neoplatonism and also Eastern teachings such as Buddhism, Vedanta and Daoism that were more concerned with theory as an aid to practice than as an end in itself.
For example, remember that the Buddha cautioned against metaphysical views. — Janus

Yes, but Plato and Aristotle also taught "philosophical schools", and they included both physical and metaphysical topics, with the end in mind of training young Athenians to become wise and virtuous citizens. Are Wisdom and Virtue physical or metaphysical concepts? Ironically, even the Buddha taught that the ultimate goal of his philosophy was the attainment of metaphysical Nirvana.

I was merely trying to point out that the "point" of Philosophy and of Science are proximately different, but ultimately compatible : what's "good" for humans in a complex and dangerous world, with both physical and metaphysical Goods.

Are Wisdom and Virtue physical or metaphysical concepts? — Gnomon
It depends on what you mean by wisdom and virtue. Aristotle spoke of phronesis usually translated as 'practical wisdom'. Wisdom and virtue can be understood to be pragmatic virtues. — Janus

That's true, but I was not asking about the practical application of those philosophical principles. My question was about how Aristotle would categorize those topics. Would he include them in the Physics section of his books, or in the section that later came to be known as The Metaphysics*1?

Ari covered both under the general title of Nature (phusis), but he covered what we would now call "Natural Phenomena" in the first books, and what we might call "Human Nature" (Reason, Essence, Noumena) in a separate book from his discussions of non-human Nature. Today, we pay little attention to his primitive-but-practical encyclopedia on the physical world. Yet, 2500 years later, we continue to argue about the immaterial philosophical concepts that he defined so succinctly.

Although he spoke of nature gods, they were more like Spinoza's deus sive natura than the anthro-morphic gods of Greece*2. That's why I interpret Metaphysics in terms of abstract philosophical concepts*3 instead of socio-cultural religious precepts*4. For similar reasons, I make a fundamental distinction between pragmatic technological Natural Science and theoretical intellectual Human Philosophy. When we discuss Universal Principles, such as Dualism vs Monism, on this forum, we are not doing Science, and we don't play by the physical rules of non-human nature.


*1. Aristotle’s Metaphysics :
Many of the issues Aristotle deals with—such as existence, essence, individuation, identity, Universals, . . . . . just to mention a few—are certainly issues that we would comfortably describe as metaphysical
https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/di ... 1-0278.xml

*2. Aristotle on Religion :
Aristotle is a severe critic of traditional religion, believing it to be false, yet he also holds that traditional religion and its institutions are necessary . . . .
https://www.cambridge.org/us/university ... 1108415255

*3. Concept : an abstract idea. It is understood to be a fundamental building block underlying principles, thoughts and beliefs

*4. Precept : a general rule intended to regulate behavior or thought.